Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a philosophical and Chinese tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao (). With a range of meanings and interpretations in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', all dependent on intention as the Chinese language is polysemic in design, but generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying what is understood as reality. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Chinese societal history, including traditional medicine, meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, to understand and embody a deeper appreciation and connection to the concept of the Tao, and self understanding by living a more harmonious existence and experience with nature as it's expression. Taoist ethics generally emphasize as a foundation the embodiment of the three treasures that include compassion, humility and frugality. the virtues of effortless action (Wu wei), naturalness, simplicity, (Wu ji) that then naturally aligns with the virtues of the five phases (Wuxing).
In religious Taoism it is treated as a distinct tradition with its own scriptures, priestly monastic lineages, right's and ritual systems, it has long been closely intertwined with the local Chinese folk religion of the people or laity, making the boundary often blurred in societal practice.
The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period (), during which the epigrammatic and the anecdotal —widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely compiled. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which were assembled by monks into the canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism, Mohism, Confucianism, various Legalist theories, as well as the and Spring and Autumn Annals.
Taoism is frequently discussed in comparison with Confucianism since both traditions profoundly influenced Chinese thought. They later combined with Buddhism upon its introduction to China, with long-running discourses, commentaries and developments shared between Taoists and Buddhists eventually evolving into what scholars now call indigenous Chinese Buddhism.This mutual coexistence led to the emergence of the Three Teachings discourse by the 6th century CE, which examined how the three traditions could be integrated harmoniously in Chinese society.
Many Taoist denominations recognize deities, often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and ("immortals"). were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist".
The title ("Taoist master") is traditionally reserved for ordained clergy within Taoist organizations, who distinguish their formal traditions from those of Chinese folk religion. Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as a theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty, attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy.
Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau. It is considered a major religion in Taiwan, and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms, both those keeping to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements.
Terminology
Spelling and pronunciation
"Tao" and "Dao" are different romanized spellings of the same Chinese word: 道. "Tao" is the romanized spelling in the Wade–Giles system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the romanized spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s and the Library of Congress in 2000, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles romanization in academic sources. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道 is . Neither an English pronunciation like (an English pronunciation of "Dao") nor an English pronunciation like (an English pronunciation of "Tao") is the same as the Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道, whose initial consonant is neither voiced nor aspirated.
One authority calls the pronunciation with a as in "tie" (with a ) to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade–Giles system", which misled most readers. Standard Chinese phonology does not have the same sound inventory as English phonology; the Wade–Giles romanization system provides spellings in the Latin alphabet, but they are not meant to indicate an exact English pronunciation in the same way as though they were English words.
Classification as philosophy and religion
The English word Taoism is often used to translate two distinct terms in Chinese:
Daojia (道家; dàojiā; “School/Tradition of the Dao”) is a Han-dynasty label used to classify teachings and texts associated with the dao ("the Way"). The expression daojia is traced to the early Han historian Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE), where it appears as part of a scheme for organizing “six schools”: Yin-Yang, Confucian, Mohist, Legalist, School of Names, and Taoist. The term is commonly applied, particularly in Western scholarship, with reference to the early Chinese philosophical texts Tao Te Ching (also called the Laozi) and the Zhuangzi, as well as later related philosophical developments such as Xuanxue ("Neo-Daoism").
Daojiao (道教; dàojiào; “Teachings of the Dao,” often rendered “Taoism” or "Daoism" in the sense of an organized religion). The term was coined by Lu Xiujing (406–477), a key figure in the early Lingbao movement and architect of the early Taoist tradition, in order to distinguish Taoism from Buddhism. In scholarship, it is often interpreted as the Taoist "religion proper", referring to later organized Taoist schools, institutional structures (such as temples and priesthoods), and religious practices and rituals. The first instance of Taoism as a proper religious community is generally traced back to the Way of the Celestial Masters tradition founded in 142 CE.
Early scholarship on Taoism classified these terms as Philosophical Taoism and Religious Taoism, respectively. This distinction, traced to the Protestant missionary James Legge (1815-1897), remains present in many non-specialist texts such as world religion textbooks. However, Taoist scholars themselves have increasingly moved away from this classification, with Komjathy calling it "wholly inaccurate and untenable." Komjathy notes even early "classical Taoism" already consisted of several characteristic features of religion, such as a cosmology centered on the Dao, specific practices like meditation, and aims of a mystical union. Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements.
Adherents Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology, is traditionally used to translate daoshi (), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community.
This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters () of vernacular traditions (the so-called faism) within Chinese religion.
The term (), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion.
History
Classical Taoism and its sources Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing a contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao". These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities. Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before the Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the I Ching, School of Naturalists, as well as Mohist, "Legalist", and "Confucian" ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism".
The main early Taoist sources include the Neiye, the Zhuangzi, and the Tao Te Ching. The Tao Te Ching, attributed to Laozi, was composed between the 4th and 6th century BCE. A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure.
While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that the Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among the inhabitants".
Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy. Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied, reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing everything outside".