A virtue () is a trait of excellence, including traits that may be moral, social, or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "good of humanity" and thus is valued as an end purpose of life or a foundational principle of being. In human practical ethics, a virtue is a disposition to choose actions that succeed in showing high moral standards: doing what is said to be right and avoiding what is wrong in a given field of endeavour, even when doing so may be unnecessary from a utilitarian perspective. When someone takes pleasure in doing what is right, even when it is difficult or initially unpleasant, they can establish virtue as a habit. Such a person is said to be virtuous through having cultivated such a disposition. The opposite of virtue is vice.
Other examples of this notion include the concept of merit in Asian traditions as well as (Chinese , "character," "integrity").
Etymology The ancient Romans used the Latin word (derived from , their word for man) to refer to all of the "excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude". The French words and came from this Latin root. The word virtue "was borrowed into English in the 13th century".
History
Ancient Egypt
Maat (or Ma'at) was the ancient Egyptian goddess of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. The word was also used to refer to these concepts. Maat was also portrayed as regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, and injustice.
Greco-Roman antiquity
Platonic virtue The four classic cardinal virtues are: Prudence (, ; ; also Wisdom, , ), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time. Fortitude (, ; ): also termed courage, forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation. Temperance (, ; ): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the appetition. Plato considered , which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue. Justice (, ; ): also considered as fairness; the Greek word also having the meaning of righteousness.
This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by Plato who also added piety (, ) and replaced prudence with wisdom. Some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations to be mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal.
It is unclear whether Plato subscribed to a unified view of virtues. In Protagoras and Meno he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom. The narrative in the Meno commences with the eponymous character asking about virtue, but when Socrates asks him "What is virtue?", he replies with a list of virtues displayed in different ways.Plato, Meno, 71e-72b
Aristotelian virtue
In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a golden mean sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. This golden mean obtains at a desirable middle between excess and deficiency. For Aristotle, the desirableness of the trait at the golden mean—that which makes it a virtue—consists in its disposition to be "chosen under the proper guidance of reason". That is, in its disposition to foster human flourishing, a state defined with respect to human nature conceived teleologically, or as an end to be realized instead of a descriptive fact to be understood.
However, the virtuous action is not simply the "mean" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the Nicomachean Ethics: "at the right times, and on the right occasions, and towards the right persons, and with the right object, and in the right fashion, is the mean course and the best course, and these are characteristics of virtue." For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include courage between cowardice and foolhardiness and confidence between self-deprecation and conceit. In Aristotle's sense, a virtue is an excellence at being human.
Intellectual virtues Aristotle also identifies the "intellectual virtues" of knowledge, art, practical judgement, intuition, and wisdom.
Roman virtues The term virtue itself is derived from the Latin (the personification of which was the deity Virtus), and had connotations of "manliness", "honour", worthiness of deferential respect, and civic duty as both citizen and soldier. This virtue was but one of many virtues which Romans of good character were expected to exemplify and pass on through the generations, as part of the ; ancestral traditions which defined "Roman-ness". Romans distinguished between the spheres of private and public life, and thus, virtues were also divided between those considered to be in the realm of private family life (as lived and taught by the paterfamilias) and those expected of an upstanding Roman citizen.
Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were: Latin English DescriptionAbundance or ProsperityThe ideal of there being enough food and prosperity for all segments of society, personified by Abundantia. A public virtue. Spiritual AuthorityThe sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order.HumourEase of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.Perseverance or CourageMilitary stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship.MercyMildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions, personified by Clementia.DignityA sense of self-worth, personal self-respect, and self-esteem.DisciplineConsidered essential to military excellence; also connotes adherence to the legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship, personified by Disciplina.Good FaithMutual trust and reciprocal dealings in both government and commerce (public affairs), a breach meant legal and religious consequences, personified by Fides.TenacityStrength of mind, and the ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without wavering.FrugalityEconomy and simplicity in lifestyle.GravityA sense of the importance of the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest. RespectibilityThe image and honor that one presents as a respectable member of society.HumanityRefinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured. Industriousness or DiligenceHard work.SelflessnessGiving without anticipating recognition or personal gain. Central to this concept was an unwavering commitment to incorruptibility, avoiding the misuse of public office for personal benefit, as that was considered a grave affront to Roman values, detrimental to both individual and communal well-being.Joy or GladnessThe celebration of thanksgiving, often of the resolution of crisis, a public virtue. NobilityMan of fine appearance, deserving of honor, highly esteemed social rank, and, or, nobility of birth, a public virtue.JusticeSense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis.DutifulnessMore than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the patron and client relationship considered essential to an orderly society. PrudenceForesight, wisdom, and personal discretion. WholesomenessGeneral health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus. SternnessSelf-control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas. TruthfulnessHonesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous. ManlinessValor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. is Latin for "man".
Ancient India
While religious scriptures generally consider or (the Tamil term for virtue) as a divine virtue, Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness. For this reason, Valluvar keeps as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature. Valluvar considered justice as a facet or product of . While many before his time opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice. In the words of V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud".
Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe
In the , upon the occasion of his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor, Charlemagne published a list of knightly virtues: Love God Love your neighbor Give alms to the poor Entertain strangers Visit the sick Be merciful to prisoners Do ill to no man, nor consent unto such Forgive as ye hope to be forgiven Redeem the captive Help the oppressed Defend the cause of the widow and orphan Render righteous judgement Do not consent to any wrong Persevere not in wrath Shun excess in eating and drinking Be humble and kind Serve your liege lord faithfully Do not steal Do not perjure yourself, nor let others do so Envy, hatred, and violence separate men from the Kingdom of God Defend the Church and promote her cause.
Religious traditions
Abrahamic religions
Bahá'í Faith
The Baháʼí teachings speak of a "Greater Covenant", being universal and endless, and a "Lesser Covenant" specific to each religion. Baháʼís view Baháʼu'lláh's revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers. In the Baháʼí writings being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue.
Christianity
In Christianity, the three theological virtues are faith, hope, and love, a list which comes from of 1 Corinthians 13 ( (faith), (hope), (love), ). The same chapter describes love as the greatest of the three, and further defines love as "patient... kind... not envious, or boastful, or arrogant, or rude" (the Christian virtue of love is sometimes called charity and at other times a Greek word is used to contrast the love of God and the love of humankind from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection).
Christian scholars frequently add the four classic cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, temperance, and courage) to the theological virtues to give the seven heavenly virtues; for example, these seven are the ones described in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, sections 1803–1829. In Christian tradition courage or fortitude is a gift of the Holy Spirit.
In , Aurelius Prudentius Clemens listed seven "heavenly virtues" in his book Psychomachia (Battle of Souls) which is an allegorical story of conflict between vices and virtues. Among the virtues were (faith), (chastity), (endurance), (humility), (hope), (sobriety), (reason), (devotion), (peace), (harmony), and (wisdom).
The medieval and renaissance periods saw a number of models of sin, listing the seven deadly sins and the seven capital virtues opposed to each. ViceLatinVirtueLatinPrideHumilityEnvyKindnessGluttonyTemperanceLustChastityWrathPatienceGreedCharitySlothDiligence
Islam