Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to analysing gender identity and gendered representation. Gender studies originated in the field of women's studies, concerning women, feminism, gender, and politics. Queer studies, men's studies and transgender studies are sub-fields of Gender studies. Its rise to prominence, especially in Western universities after 1990, coincided with the rise of deconstruction.
Disciplines that frequently contribute to gender studies include the fields of literature, linguistics, human geography, history, political science, archaeology, economics, sociology, psychology, anthropology, cinema, musicology, media studies, human development, law, public health, disability studies and medicine. Gender studies also analyzes how race, ethnicity, location, social class, nationality, and disability intersect with the categories of gender, gender identity and sexuality.Healey, J. F. (2003). Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class: The Sociology of Group Conflict and Change. In gender studies, the term "gender" is often used to refer to the social and cultural constructions of masculinity and femininity, rather than biological aspects of the male or female sex;Garrett, S. (1992). "Gender", p. vii. however, this view is not held by all gender scholars.
Gender is pertinent to many disciplines, such as literary theory, drama studies, film theory, performance theory, contemporary art history, anthropology, sociology, sociolinguistics, disability studies, biology and psychology. These disciplines sometimes differ in their approaches to how and why gender is studied. In politics, gender can be viewed as a foundational discourse that political actors employ in order to position themselves on a variety of issues.Salime, Zakia. Between Feminism and Islam: Human Rights and Sharia Law in Morocco. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011. Gender studies is also a discipline in itself, incorporating methods and approaches from a wide range of disciplines.
Many fields came to regard "gender" as a practice, sometimes referred to as something that is performative. Feminist theory of psychoanalysis, articulated mainly by Julia Kristeva and Bracha L. Ettinger,Anne-Marie Smith, Julia Kristeva: Speaking the Unspeakable (Pluto Press, 1988).Griselda Pollock, "Inscriptions in the Feminine" and "Introduction" to "The With-In-Visible Screen", in: Inside the Visible edited by Catherine de Zegher. MIT Press, 1996. and informed both by Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan and the object relations theory, is very influential in gender studies.
Influences
Psychoanalytic theory
A number of theorists have influenced the field of gender studies significantly, specifically in terms of psychoanalytic theory. Among these are Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and Bracha L. Ettinger. Gender studied under the lens of each of these theorists looks somewhat different. In a Freudian system, women are "mutilated and must learn to accept their lack of a penis" (in Freud's terms a "deformity"). Lacan, however, organizes femininity and masculinity according to different unconscious structures. Both male and female subjects participate in the "phallic" organization, and the feminine side of sexuation is "supplementary" and not opposite or complementary. Lacan uses the concept of sexuation (sexual situation), which posits the development of gender-roles and role-play in childhood, to counter the idea that gender identity is innate or biologically determined. According to Lacan, the sexuation of an individual has as much, if not more, to do with their development of a gender identity as being genetically sexed male or female.
Kristeva contends that patriarchal cultures, like individuals, have to exclude the maternal and the feminine so that they can come into being. Bracha L. Ettinger transformedBracha L. Ettinger, Proto-ética matricial. Spanish Edition translated and Introduced by Julian Gutierrez Albilla (Gedisa 2019)Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher. Women Artists at the Millennium. October Books/MIT Press, 2006 2006.Pollock, Griselda. Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum. Taylor and Francis, 2010 . subjectivity in contemporary psychoanalysis since the early 1990s with the Matrixial feminine-maternal and prematernal Eros of borderlinking (bordureliance), borderspacing (bordurespacement) and co-emergence. The matrixial feminine difference defines a particular gazeBracha L. Ettinger, The Matrixial Borderspace. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006 (articles 1994–99). . and it is a source for trans-subjectivity and transjectivity in both males and females. Ettinger rethinks the human subject as informed by the archaic connectivity to the maternal and proposes the idea of a Demeter-Persephone Complexity.
Feminist psychoanalytic theory Feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell, Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop, Bracha L. Ettinger, Shoshana Felman, Griselda Pollock, Luce Irigaray and Jane Flax have developed a Feminist psychoanalysis and argued that psychoanalytic theory is vital to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be criticized by women as well as transformed to free it from vestiges of sexism (i.e. being censored). Shulamith Firestone, in The Dialectic of Sex, calls Freudianism the misguided feminism and discusses how Freudianism is almost completely accurate, with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that Freud writes "penis", the word should be replaced with "power".
Critics such as Elizabeth Grosz accuse Jacques Lacan of maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis. Others, such as Judith Butler, Bracha L. Ettinger and Jane Gallop have used Lacanian work, though in a critical way, to develop gender studies. According to J. B. Marchand, "The gender studies and queer theory are rather reluctant, hostile to see the psychoanalytic approach." For Jean-Claude Guillebaud, gender studies (and activists of sexual minorities) "besieged" and consider psychoanalysis and psychoanalysts as "the new priests, the last defenders of the genital normality, morality, moralism or even obscurantism".
Judith Butler's worries about the psychoanalytic outlook under which sexual difference is "undeniable" and pathologizing any effort to suggest that it is not so paramount and unambiguous ...". According to Daniel Beaune and Caterina Rea, the gender-studies "often criticized psychoanalysis to perpetuate a family and social model of patriarchal, based on a rigid and timeless version of the parental order".
Literary theory Psychoanalytically oriented French feminism focused on visual and literary theory all along. Virginia Woolf's legacy as well as "Adrienne Rich's call for women's revisions of literary texts, and history as well, has galvanized a generation of feminist authors to reply with texts of their own".Mica Howe & Sarah A. Aguier (eds). He said, She Says. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2001. Griselda Pollock and other feminists have articulated Myth and poetry and literature, from the point of view of gender.
Postcolonialism and Decolonialism Decolonial studies is an interdisciplinary study that analyzes the lasting impact of colonialism and the structures that create and maintain systems of knowledge, power, and hierarchy. Race and Gender are considered to be two of the spheres of 'coloniality' by Aníbal Quijano. Marìa Lugones called the method of overcoming the coloniality of gender to be 'decolonial feminism', which addressed the central role of gender and race played in sustaining colonial hierarchies. Building on this foundation, McShane argues that the very foundation of gender studies, gender performativity and intersectionality function are decolonial methodologies that challenge the eurocentric and imperialism framework within the western academic institutions.
Chandra Talpadea Mohanty, a transnational feminist scholar, published Under Western Eyes - Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses in 1984, in which she critiqued the homogenous and victimized image of "Third World Woman", and the experiences of whom are incredibly diverse given historical, cultural and individual backgrounds. This hinged the power relationship between different lived experiences and importance of constructing diverse narratives.
Post-modern influence The emergence of post-modernism theories affected gender studies, causing a movement in identity theories away from the concept of fixed or essentialist gender identity, to post-modern fluid or multiple identities.Benhabib, S. (1995). "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange", and Butler, J. (1995), "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange". The impact of post-structuralism, and its literary theory aspect post-modernism, on gender studies was most prominent in its challenge of grand narratives. Post-structuralism paved the way for the emergence of queer theory in gender studies, which necessitated the field expanding its purview to sexuality.
In addition to the expansion to include sexuality studies, under the influence of post-modernism gender studies has also turned its lens toward masculinity studies, due to the work of sociologists and theorists such as R. W. Connell, Michael Kimmel, and E. Anthony Rotundo.Reeser, Masculinities in Theory, 2010. These changes and expansions have led to some contentions within the field, such as the one between second wave feminists and queer theorists. The line drawn between these two camps lies in the problem as feminists see it of queer theorists arguing that everything is fragmented and there are not only no grand narratives but also no trends or categories. Feminists argue that this erases the categories of gender altogether but does nothing to antagonize the power dynamics reified by gender. In other words, the fact that gender is socially constructed does not undo the fact that there are strata of oppression between genders.
Development
History
The history of gender studies looks at the different perspectives of gender. This discipline examines the ways in which historical, cultural, and social events shape the role of gender in different societies. The field of gender studies, while focusing on the differences between men and women, also looks at sexual differences and less binary definitions of gender categorization.
Academic Institutions
Early Institut für Sexualwissenschaft (Institute for Sexual Science) was a German research-based institute that was in operation from 1919 to 1933. The institute was lost to two waves of attacks that led to the loss of approximately 12,000-20,000 journals, books and articles, with others suggesting larger numbers, not including other media materials.
Post-structural - Modern