The Lombard painter Michelangelo Merisi, known as "Caravaggio", was compelled to flee Rome, where he was accused of murder, in May 1606, and travel south through Italy, reaching as far as the island of Malta. His exile spanned slightly over four years, and concluded with his demise in July 1610 at the age of 38. This time coincided with the acquisition of a pardon that granted him the opportunity to return to Rome without the concern of facing legal retribution.
Following the commission of the murder that ultimately resulted in his death sentence in absentia, Caravaggio was initially compelled to hastily depart Rome and seek refuge in the Alban Hills of Lazio. He remained in this location for a brief period, spanning only a few months, before relocating to Naples in pursuit of enhanced safety. Subsequently, he embarked on a voyage to Malta, seeking refuge and the status of Knight of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem. However, he was compelled to flee the island after becoming embroiled in another violent incident. This led him to Sicily, where he resided in Syracuse, Messina, and Palermo. In 1609, he returned to Naples and embarked on a journey to Rome to obtain a pardon from Pope Paul V. He died under enigmatic circumstances on July 18, 1610, in the village of Porto Ercole.
It is estimated that Caravaggio produced at least twenty works during this period. The style he developed was highly distinctive and reflected the hardships of his life as an exile and a condemned man. His palette darkened significantly, his compositions evolved spatially, and the themes he explored became darker, more meditative, contemplative, and morbid. During this period, Caravaggio created monumental religious works and was commissioned to create portraits, intended for influential patrons whose favor he sought, including the possibility of intercession with the Pope to allow his return to Rome.
Context and conditions of exile
Flight from Rome
Caravaggio was originally from Milan, but he relocated to Rome during the 1590s, where he gained recognition for his artistic contributions. By the turn of the century, Caravaggio's artistic success was at its zenith. However, his tempestuous temperament led him to engage in numerous confrontations with the law.Archival research uncovered, for instance, a police document reporting Caravaggio’s arrest for illegal possession of a weapon, just one year before committing the murder that forced him into exile. The historical document is available and analyzed in this article: The most notable incident occurred on May 28, 1606, during festivities marking the anniversary of Pope Paul V's election. These celebrations were often characterized by altercations. During the aforementioned altercation, Caravaggio and his associate Onorio Longhi engaged in a physical confrontation with members and associates of the Tomassoni family, including Ranuccio Tomassoni and his brother Giovan Francesco, who, ironically, was described as a "keeper of order." The confrontation culminated in the death of Ranuccio Tomassoni, who was fatally wounded by Caravaggio, and Caravaggio himself sustaining injuries.
The incident caused a sensation in the city, and rumors of varying accuracy quickly circulated. Some suggested that the altercation followed a game of pallacorda (similar to tennis) or occurred near a pallacorda court adjacent to the . Others speculated that it was related to gambling debts. Another possibility is that the altercation stemmed from a dispute over a woman, specifically Fillide Melandroni, who was employed as a model for Caravaggio but also engaged in prostitution under Tomassoni's authority. While the precise cause of the confrontation remains uncertain, the incident was likely rooted in an ongoing dispute. The enmity between Onorio Longhi and the Tomassoni family had been an enduring feature of their relationship, and it is conceivable that Caravaggio, by the prevailing code of honor, may have joined forces with Longhi in this act of retribution.
After the incident, the participants dispersed to evade legal retribution. Longhi returned to his place of origin in Milan, while the surviving members of the Tomassoni group sought refuge in Parma. Caravaggio initiated his exile in the Alban Hills in the Lazio region, south of Rome. The precise location of his exile remains a subject of debate, with potential destinations including Zagarolo, Palestrina, or Paliano. These areas offered sufficient distance for immediate safety, particularly since the region was under the control of the Colonna family, long-time patrons and protectors of Caravaggio. However, his stay was brief. Caravaggio's situation became critical as the initially slow-moving Roman justice system soon proved severe. Within weeks, Caravaggio was sentenced in absentia to bando capitale—a lifetime banishment accompanied by a death sentence enforceable by anyone, anywhere. Facing this extreme threat, Caravaggio quickly fled farther south, beyond the reach of the Papal States, but still under Colonna protection. He traveled to Naples, then under Spanish control, likely before the end of September 1606.
This sojourn in Latium, lasting several months, likely provided Caravaggio with an opportunity to produce select works, although the extant documentation does not permit definitive confirmation. These works may include Saint Francis in Meditation and the other Saint Francis in Meditation on the Crucifix from Cremona, as well as the Mary Magdalene in Ecstasy and the Supper at Emmaus, currently housed in Milan. The David with the Head of Goliath in the Borghese Gallery may also have been created during this period. However, some authors suggest a later creation, perhaps shortly before the artist died in 1610.
Mediterranean wanderings
First stay in Naples
Caravaggio's arrival in Naples occurred approximately four months after he departed from Rome, around late September 1606. Despite his brief sojourn in the city, spanning a mere ten months, prior to his relocation to Malta, this period proved to be remarkably fruitful. No extant records from this era make any mention of scandals, accusations, or criminal activities involving him.
Caravaggio's arrival in Naples was met with great anticipation within the artistic community. According to Giovanni Pietro Bellori, a near-contemporary biographer who provided commentary on Caravaggio's career several decades later, "immediately upon his arrival, he secured employment, as his style and name had already gained recognition." Caravaggio swiftly obtained significant and lucrative commissions from local dignitaries, indicating his rapid ascent to prominence. These commissions included an altarpiece depicting a Virgin and Child, which has since been lost, and a painting for another church, The Seven Works of Mercy. Other works from this period include The Flagellation of Christ, Salome with the Head of John the Baptist, and Christ at the Column. The eighth Count of Benavente, the Spanish viceroy in Naples—then under Spanish rule since the early 16th century—likely commissioned Caravaggio's Saint Andrew, which he took with him to Valladolid shortly afterward.
It is also believed that during this Neapolitan period, Caravaggio painted Madonna of the Rosary and David with the Head of Goliath, assuming the latter was not completed shortly before his arrival in Naples.
Knight in Malta
Caravaggio's arrival in Valletta, the fortified capital of Malta, on July 12, 1607, coincided with the pursuit of an opportunity that would eventually lead to his initiation into the Knights of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem. This endeavor was influenced by the aspirations of Alof de Wignacourt, the of the Order, who prioritized the promotion and safeguarding of artistic endeavors. As articulated by Giovanni Pietro Bellori, Caravaggio's motivations were to be recognized with the Cross of Malta, a distinction bestowed upon individuals exemplifying merit and virtue. This aspiration underscores Caravaggio's ambition to attain a form of nobility and social advancement, particularly notable given his humble origins. Concurrently, this endeavor was probably a component of his broader strategy to obtain a papal pardon, which would have enabled him to eventually return to Rome.
According to several biographers, there is a possibility that Caravaggio's sojourn in Malta was momentarily interrupted by a sojourn in Naples between September 1607 and the end of April 1608, before his return to Malta. This would suggest the existence of two distinct Maltese periods.
However, Caravaggio's sojourn in Malta was abruptly curtailed, culminating in yet another episode of violence. Less than three months after attaining the highly sought-after rank of knight, on the night of August 18, 1608, he found himself embroiled in a physical altercation at the residence of one of the Order's brothers, who happened to be an organist at a church in Valletta. The ensuing confrontation led to grave injuries sustained by one of the Hospitallers. Caravaggio, along with several others, was apprehended—or at least detained—but managed to evade capture before facing trial. By early October, presumably with the assistance of allies, he escaped from the Fort St. Angelo and embarked on a voyage to Sicily. An immediate investigation was initiated in Malta, but it did not yield any definitive results. The case culminated in a declaration of escape and high treason, resulting in Caravaggio's expulsion from the Order in November 1608 and his formal degradation as a knight, described as tan[quam] membrum putridum et foetidum ("as a putrid and corrupted member").
A close examination of Caravaggio's artistic output during his Maltese period reveals a surprising paucity of productivity, given his customary rapid execution of works and the fact that he resided in Malta for a period of fifteen months. It is estimated that he completed no more than five paintings during this time.
Flight to Sicily
Caravaggio arrived in the southern region of Sicily and embarked on an adventurous journey, traveling on foot to Syracuse. He made only a brief stop there, likely meeting his friend Mario Minniti, who may have assisted him in securing the commission for The Burial of Saint Lucy. However, despite the success of his work, Caravaggio felt unsafeContrary to this hypothesis, S. Ebert-Schifferer argues that concerns for his safety did not drive Caravaggio’s movements across Sicily. Instead, she suggests he traveled from city to city based on commissions without fearing specific threats (Ebert-Schifferer 2009, p. 233). and immediately left the city after delivering the painting. He then sought refuge in Messina under the patronage of Archbishop Giannettino Doria, a relative of the Marchioness , a long-time patron of Caravaggio. In Messina, Caravaggio completed a painting titled The Raising of Lazarus, commissioned by a wealthy merchant, Giovan Battista de' Lazzari, whose name was derived from the Christian saint. In this work, as well as in The Burial of Saint Lucy, Caravaggio defied traditional iconography, employing bold and innovative techniques. Subsequently, he created Adoration of the Shepherds for a Franciscan church in Messina. Other commissions from this period include four paintings on the Passion of Christ, though it is uncertain whether these works were ever completed.