Internet censorship is one of the forms of censorship, the suppression of speech, public communication and other information. The People's Republic of China (PRC) censors both the publishing and viewing of online material. Many controversial events are censored from news coverage, preventing many Chinese citizens from knowing about the actions of their government, and severely restricting freedom of the press. China's censorship includes the complete blockage of various websites, apps, and video games, inspiring the policy's nickname, the Great Firewall, which blocks websites. Methods used to block websites and pages include DNS spoofing, blocking access to IP addresses, analyzing and filtering URLs, packet inspection, and resetting connections.
The government blocks website content and monitors Internet access. As required by the government, major Internet platforms in China have established elaborate self-censorship mechanisms. Internet platforms are required to implement a real-name system, requiring users' real names, ID numbers, and other information when providing services. As of 2019, more than sixty online restrictions had been created by the Chinese government and implemented by provincial branches of state-owned ISPs, companies and organizations. Some companies hire teams and invest in powerful artificial intelligence algorithms to police and remove illegal online content. VPNs are heavily restricted and unauthorized usage can be subject to fines and legal prosecution. VPN usage among the Chinese population is low; as of 2022, around 3% of Chinese citizens were estimated to use VPNs, while the Asia Society estimated in 2026 that VPN usage in China by percentage was in the low single digits. Due to the Great Firewall, China has one of the lowest cross-border internet traffic rates in the world. Usage of foreign apps and websites in China is extremely low, with most Chinese netizens using domestic alternatives.
Amnesty International states that China has "the largest recorded number of imprisoned journalists and cyber-dissidents in the world""Background: Firewall of Shame" , Global Internet Freedom Consortium, 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2014. and Reporters Without Borders stated in 2010 and 2012 that "China is the world's biggest prison for netizens.""Inside China" , Miles Yu, Washington Times, 8 February 2012. Retrieved 22 March 2014."2012 Internet Enemies: China" , Reporters Without Borders, 12 March 2012. Retrieved 22 March 2014. Freedom House rated China "Not Free" in the Freedom on the Net 2023 report. Commonly alleged user offenses include communicating with organized groups abroad, signing controversial online petitions, and forcibly calling for government reform. The government has escalated its efforts to reduce coverage and commentary that is critical of the regime after a series of large anti-pollution and anti-corruption protests. Many of these protests were organized or publicized using instant messaging services, chat rooms, and text messages. China's Internet police force was reported by official state media to be 2 million strong in 2013.
China's special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau are outside the Great Firewall. However, it was reported that the central government authorities have been closely monitoring Internet use in these regions (see Internet censorship in Hong Kong).
Background
The political and ideological background of Internet censorship is considered to be one of Deng Xiaoping's favorite sayings in the early 1980s: "If you open a window for fresh air, you have to expect some flies to blow in." The saying is related to a period of the reform and opening up that became known as the socialist market economy. Superseding the political ideologies of the Cultural Revolution, the reform led China towards a market economy, opening it up to foreign investors. Nonetheless, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) wished to protect its values and political ideas by "swatting flies" of other ideologies,R. MacKinnon "Flatter world and thicker walls? Blogs, censorship and civic discourse in China" Public Choice (2008) 134: p. 31–46, Springer with a particular emphasis on suppressing movements that could potentially threaten the stability of the country.
The Internet first arrived in the country in 1994. Since its arrival and the gradual rise of availability, the Internet has become a common communication platform and an important tool for sharing information. Just as the Chinese government had expected, the number of Internet users in China soared from less than one percent in 1994, when the Internet was introduced, to 28.8 percent by 2009.
In 1998, the CCP feared the China Democracy Party (CDP), organized in contravention of the Four Cardinal Principles, would breed a powerful new network that CCP party elites might not be able to control resulting in theGoldman, Merle Goldman. Gu, Edward X. (2004). Chinese Intellectuals Between State and Market. Routledge. CDP being immediately banned. That same year, the Golden Shield project was created. The first part of the project lasted eight years and was completed in 2006. The second part began in 2006 and ended in 2008. The Golden Shield project was a database project in which the government could access the records of each citizen and connect China's security organizations. The government had the power to delete any comments online that were considered harmful.
On 6 December 2002, 300 members in charge of the Golden Shield project came from 31 provinces and cities across China to participate in a four-day inaugural "Comprehensive Exhibition on Chinese Information System". At the exhibition, many Western technology products including Internet security, video monitoring, and facial recognition systems were purchased. According to Amnesty International, around 30,000–50,000 Internet police have been employed by the Chinese government to enforce Internet laws.
The Chinese government has described censorship as the method to prevent and eliminate "risks in the ideological field from the Internet".
Legislative basis
The government of China defends its right to censor the Internet by claiming that this right extends from the country's own rules inside its borders. A white paper released in June 2010 reaffirmed the government's determination to govern the Internet within its borders under the jurisdiction of Chinese sovereignty. The document states, "Laws and regulations prohibit the spread of information that contains content subverting state power, undermining national unity [or] infringing upon national honor and interests." It adds that foreign individuals and firms can use the Internet in China, but they must abide by the country's laws.
The Central Government of China started its Internet censorship with three regulations. The first regulation was called the Temporary Regulation for the Management of Computer Information Network International Connection. The regulation was passed in the 42nd Standing Convention of the State Council on 23 January 1996. It was formally announced on 1 February 1996, and updated again on 20 May 1997.Qiu, Jack L. Virtual Censorship in China: Keeping the Gate Between the Cyberspaces. International Journal of Communications Law and Policy. 4. 1999. The content of the first regulation stated that Internet service providers be licensed and that Internet traffic goes through ChinaNet, GBNet, CERNET or CSTNET. The second regulation was the Ordinance for Security Protection of Computer Information Systems. It was issued on 18 February 1994 by the State Council to give the responsibility of Internet security protection to the Ministry of Public Security.Taubman, G. (1998). 'A not-so world wide web: the Internet, China, and the challenges to the non-democratic rule.' Political Communication. 15, 255–272.
Article 5 of the Computer Information Network and Internet Security, Protection, and Management Regulations The Ordinance regulation further led to the Security Management Procedures in Internet Accessing issued by the Ministry of Public Security in December 1997. The regulation defined "harmful information" and "harmful activities" regarding Internet usage.Guan, S. (1995). Intercultural communication (in Chinese). Beijing: Beijing University Press. Section Five of the Computer Information Network and Internet Security, Protection, and Management Regulations approved by the State Council on 11 December 1997 stated the following:
(The "units" stated above refer to work units () or more broadly, workplaces). As of 2021, the regulations are still active and govern the activities of Internet users online.
Interim Regulations of the PRC on the Management of International Networking of Computer Information In 1996, the Ministry of Commerce created a set of regulations which prohibit connection to "international networks" or use of channels outside of those provided by official government service providers without prior approval or license from authorities. The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications has since been superseded by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology or MIIT. To this date this regulation is still used to prosecute and fine users who connect to international networks or use VPNs.
State Council Order No. 292 In September 2000, State Council Order No. 292 created the first set of content restrictions for Internet content providers. China-based websites cannot link to overseas news websites or distribute news from overseas media without separate approval. Only "licensed print publishers" have the authority to deliver news online. These sites must obtain approval from state information offices and the State Council Information Agency. Non-licensed websites that wish to broadcast news may only publish information already released publicly by other news media. Article 11 of this order mentions that "content providers are responsible for ensuring the legality of any information disseminated through their services." Article 14 gives Government officials full access to any kind of sensitive information they wish from providers of Internet services.
Cybersecurity Law of the People's Republic of China
On 6 November 2017, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress promulgated a cybersecurity law which among other things requires "network operators" to store data locally, hand over information when requested by state security organs and open software and hardware used by "critical information infrastructure" operators to be subject to national security review, potentially compromising source codes and security of encryption used by communications service providers. The law is an amalgamation of all previous regulations related to Internet use and online censorship and unifies and institutionalises the legislative framework governing cyber control and content censorship within the country. Article 12 states that persons using networks shall not "overturn the socialist system, incite separatism" or "break national unity" further institutionalising the suppression of dissent online.
Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem On 20 December 2019, the Provisions on the Governance of the Online Information Content Ecosystem was promulgated by the Cyberspace Administration of China and took effect in March 2020. The Provisions require that online content creators "shall not" produce, copy or publish the following content:
Opposing the basic principles established by the Constitution; Endangering national security, leaking state secrets, subverting state power, or undermining national unity; Damaging national honor and interests; Distorting, vilifying, blaspheming, or denying the deeds and spirit of heroes and martyrs, or insulting, slandering, or otherwise infringing upon the names, portraits, reputations, and honors of heroes and martyrs;