The Photian Schism was a four-year (863–867) schism between the episcopal sees of Rome and Constantinople. The issue centred on the right of the Byzantine Emperor to depose and appoint a patriarch without approval from the papacy.
In 857, Ignatius was deposed or compelled to resign as Patriarch of Constantinople under the Byzantine Emperor Michael III for political reasons. He was replaced the following year by Photius. The pope, Nicholas I, despite previous disagreements with Ignatius, objected to what he considered the improper deposition of Ignatius and the elevation of Photius, a layman, in his place. After his legates exceeded their instructions in 861 by certifying Photius's elevation, Nicholas reversed their decision in 863 by excommunicating Photius.
The situation remained the same until 867. The West had been sending missionaries to Bulgaria. In 867, Photius called a council and excommunicated Nicholas and the entire western Church. That same year, high ranking courtier Basil I usurped the imperial throne from Michael III and reinstated Ignatius as patriarch. After Ignatius died in 877, Photius was brought back, but an agreement between him and Pope John VIII prevented a second schism. Photius was deposed again in 886, and spent his years in retirement condemning the West for its alleged heresy.
The main problem was the papal claim to jurisdiction in the East, not accusations of heresy. The schism arose largely as a struggle for ecclesiastical control of the southern Balkans and because of a personality clash between the heads of the two sees, both of whom were elected in the year 858 and both of whose reigns ended in 867. The Photian Schism thus differed from what occurred in the 11th century, when papal legates excommunicated the patriarch of Constantinople on the grounds of having lost that authority through heresy. The Photian Schism helped polarize the East and West for centuries, partially over a false but widespread belief in a second excommunication of Photius.
Background In the years shortly before 858, the Byzantine Empire emerged from a time of turmoil and entered into a period of relative stability following the crisis over Byzantine Iconoclasm. For nearly 120 years, from 720 to 843, Byzantines waged war with each other over the legitimacy of religious art, specifically whether that art constituted idol worship or merely legitimate veneration, with only the latter being acceptable according to Christian standards. Emperors generally took the side of the iconoclasts, who unlike the iconodules believed that such images were idolatrous. The situation reached a high point in 832 when Emperor Theophilos issued a decree banning the "worship" of icons in the Roman Empire. A number of people, including monks and bishops, were put in prison after they were discovered to have created sacred images or written in their defense. In 842, Theophilos died. He was succeeded by his wife Theodora, who in 843 restored the veneration of icons. She was at first opposed to the restoration, but her mind was changed by the eunuch Theoktistos and his relative Magister Sergius.
The period after iconoclasm was generally peaceful, but not entirely tranquil. Patriarch Methodius I accommodated former iconoclasts in the Church provided they renounce their heresy. He was opposed by certain "extremist" monks, particularly of the Stoudios monastery. Methodius excommunicated many of them before his death in 847. There was an intense struggle to succeed him. The election ended with the selection of the monk Ignatius, who took a hardline stance on officials in the empire who had been or still were iconoclasts.
In one instance, Archbishop Gregory Asbestas visited the new Patriarch before his coronation to do him homage. Whereupon Ignatius told Gregory that because he, a suspected iconoclast, had not been formally cleared, he could not attend the coronation ceremony. Gregory stormed out and was subsequently excommunicated in a synod for heresy and disobedience. He protested in 853 to Pope Leo IV. For reasons unclear, the Holy See allowed his case to continue into the reign of Leo’s successor, Pope Benedict III. Furthermore, Gregory and several other bishops had been condemned in a synod called by Ignatius without papal consent. Previous patriarchs had consulted the Bishop of Rome before calling a synod of bishops. Leo complained about this in a letter to the Patriarch. Another accusation made by Ignatius's enemies was that because he had not been elected in a synod and subsequently confirmed by the local emperor, instead simply being appointed by Theodora, he was not a true patriarch. Lazarus, Ignatius's envoy to Rome, had struggled to refute the charge, which seemed to create papal interest in Byzantine affairs.
Beginning
Exile of Ignatius The schism was initially caused by problems in the Byzantine court. Michael III became emperor at a young age, while his mother Theodora served as regent.Blackwell Dictionary 1999, p. 382. His uncle Bardas was an influential advisor. Church law forbade parodies of the sacred liturgies, but the young Emperor had them performed for his amusement. Former court officials testified at the Fourth Council of Constantinople (869–870) that they were forced to participate in these false ceremonies. Meanwhile, Bardas was accused of committing incest with his daughter-in-law. Because of this accusation, Ignatius publicly denied him the Eucharist in the Hagia Sophia, the main church structure of Constantinople, putting himself in open opposition to the imperial court.
Bardas intensified his attempts to consolidate power. In 855, he ordered the death of Theoktistos. Not long after, he, conspiring with the teenaged Michael, accused Theodora of intrigue and, as it was thought inappropriate to kill members of the imperial family, exiled her to a monastery. Theodora's deposition made him de facto ruler. Bardas asked or demanded that Ignatius approve of Theodora's exile. Ignatius had been appointed to his position by Theodora and, apparently out of loyalty to her, refused to give his consent. Several supporters of Ignatius organized a plot to murder Bardas; they were uncovered and beheaded in the Hippodrome. After this took place, a man named Gebeon claimed that he was Theodora’s son and the rightful king. Many partisans of Ignatius rallied around him. He was put on trial, and Ignatius undertook his defense. He lost the case and Gebeon was executed. Ignatius was then arraigned for high treason and exiled to Sedef Island in the Sea of Marmara in July 857.
There is a strong debate over whether or not Ignatius resigned the patriarchate. Had he done so, his disposition would technically have been valid, whereas this would not have been so had he refused. Contemporary sources provide some contradictions. Nicetas the Paphlagion, a contemporary and fierce partisan of Ignatius, insists that he did not resign. He claims that his resignation was demanded of him several times but that each time he refused, even when the influential court official Photius threatened his life at the instigation of Asbestas. The Council of 869, in condemning Photius, supports his assertion. Another contemporary source, known as the Life of St. Euthymios, contradicts this in stating that Ignatius did resign, "a decision in which he yielded partly to his own preference and partly to external pressure." Francis Dvornik, in his 1948 history of the Photian Schism, challenges the long-held western assertion that Ignatius was deposed. As evidence, he points to the fact that Nicetas did not directly say that he was deposed, only that he did not resign. He does however say that the pressure on him to do so must have been great.
Election of Photius A synod was held to decide on a replacement for Ignatius. Asbestas was a likely candidate but was too partisan a figure to make for peace. Instead, the bishops decided on Photius. Photius came from a prominent Byzantine family with a reputation for orthodoxy. His uncle Tarasios was appointed Patriarch by the iconodule Empress Irene of Athens, serving from 784 to 806. Tarasios convened the Second Council of Nicaea, which condemned iconoclasm. Deciding not to become a monk and to pursue a lay career instead, he was a powerful associate of Bardas.Blackwell Dictionary 1999, pp. 381–382. He was a profound scholar with diverse interests and a wide range of knowledge.
Photius was hurriedly tonsured a monk on December 20, 858 and on the following four days was successively ordained lector, sub-deacon, deacon and priest. He was made patriarch on Christmas day. This rapid elevation was contrary to the Western canonical rules but not without precedent in Constantinople. One of the consecrating bishops was Asbestas.
Reign of Photius and papal intervention The reign of Photius I was immediately beset by trouble. When some bishops and most of the monasteries (most notably that of Studion) refused to recognize him, Photius held a synod in 859 that declared Ignatius no longer patriarch. He forbade anyone from taking part in demonstrations against the Emperor. He allegedly arrested several bishops who had been loyal to Ignatius. The supporters of Ignatius sought the aid of Pope Nicholas I. Despite the difficulties the papacy had experienced with Ignatius, the Pope strongly disapproved of what he considered to be the irregular nature of his apparent deposition. He at first hesitated but eventually sent a delegation to Constantinople to assess the matter. It consisted of two legates: Bishops Radoald of Porto and Zachary of Anagni.
The Pope wrote to Photius, expressing satisfaction at his orthodox profession of faith. He reproved his hurried uncanonical consecration, but promising that, if the legates' examination into the conduct of Ignatius supported the accusations made, he would accept Photius as patriarch, reserving judgement to himself. The legates attended a council which was held in May 861. The bishops knew that their instructions were only to report their findings back to Rome and not make any final decision. Nevertheless, Photius refused to reconvene the council unless there would be a decision from the legates on the spot as to the validity of his office. They agreed, supposedly through bribery, to accept Photius as patriarch. Exceeding their powers and perhaps under pressure from the imperial court, they disobeyed their instructions. Photius also seems to have made use of adulation in bringing them to their decision. In one of his sermons, supposedly delivered in the legates' presence, he said:
Byzantine theology tended to diminish the role of the pope, although it acknowledged him as first among equals. Eastern Christians rejected his ability to unilaterally define dogma or to have any greater authority than other bishops.
Dvornik notes that the council marked the first time that the East acknowledged the right of the West to try a Byzantine patriarch. Nevertheless, Nicholas I eventually disavowed the legates' choice. In 863, he held a synod of his own in Rome, which annulled the proceedings of the 861 synod in Constantinople, condemned Photius, and reinstated Ignatius. In doing so, he asserted that no council or synod could be called without papal permission. The legates were summoned before the Pope to answer for their disobedience. Zachary confessed to the Pope that he had exceeded his powers and was forgiven. Radoald refused to appear before the Pope, was condemned in 864, and was threatened with anathema should he ever again attempt to make contact with Photius.
Bulgaria and complication of Rome