Romania has been inhabited by humans since the paleolithic. During antiquity, the main population that lived in the area corresponding to modern-day Romania were the Dacians. Dacian civilisation prospered from the second century BC to the second century AD, resulting in the establishment of a Dacian kingdom as a regional power. Following several wars with the Roman Empire, Dacia was conquered in 106 AD, and the kingdom's core was turned into a Roman province. The province was abandoned by 276 AD following several invasions from various barbarian peoples. Many Romanian historians believe that the origin of the Romanians can be traced back to the Dacians and Romans intermixing, which in turn formed the basis of the Romanian ethnicity.
During the early Middle Ages, numerous migratory peoples moved across and settled the territory of Romania. A prominent Turkic population also settled Romanian territory, particularly the Cumans. Early Romanian culture was martially influenced by these peoples. Vlachs – Romance-language speakers in the Balkans – were first clearly attested in the 10th century, inhabiting areas on both sides of the Danube. By the 13th century, numerous small Vlach political entities abounded in areas such as Muntenia, Oltenia and Transylvania. These political entities gradually unified, and by the mid-14th century, the two major historical Romanian principalities had emerged, Wallachia and Moldavia.
The principalities partook in many conflicts against their often stronger neighbours, such as the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, they became vassal states to the Ottomans, however they always managed to preserve their autonomy as well as slowly progress a Romanian national identity. In 1600, Michael the Brave managed to unite all the Romanian-inhabited states, including Transylvania for the first time, however the union was short-lived and folded under pressure from the Habsburgs, Hungarians and Poles. Nevertheless, the Romanian identity continued to cultivate, culminating in movements such as the Transylvanian School and blossoming in the 19th century through the 1848 revolutions in both Wallachia and Moldavia. The modern Romanian state was established in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities. The new state, which fought for and gained its independence in 1877, consolidated itself as a kingdom in 1881.
During World War I, after declaring its neutrality in 1914, Romania fought together with the Allied Powers from 1916. In the aftermath of the war, Bukovina, Bessarabia and Transylvania, as well as parts of the Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș united with Romania, resulting in the establishment of Greater Romania. In the summer of 1940, as a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and Second Vienna Award, Romania was compelled to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union and Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In November 1940, Romania signed the Tripartite Pact and, consequently, in June 1941 entered World War II on the Axis side, fighting against the Soviet Union until August 1944, when it joined the Allies and recovered Northern Transylvania. Following the war and occupation by the Red Army, Romania became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition towards democracy and a market economy. Romania joined NATO in 2004, and the European Union in 2007.
Prehistory
Remains of 34,950-year-old modern humans were discovered in present-day Romania when the Peștera cu Oase ("Cave with Bones") was uncovered in 2002. The Romanian fossils are among the oldest remains of Homo sapiens in Europe.
The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the western region of one of the earliest European civilizations, known as the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture. The earliest-known salt works is at Poiana Slatinei near the village of Lunca; it was first used in the early Neolithic around 6050 BC by the Starčevo culture and later by the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture in the pre-Cucuteni period.
Dacia
The Dacians, who are widely accepted to be the same people as the Getae, were a branch of Thracians who inhabited Dacia, which corresponds with modern Romania, Moldova, northern Bulgaria, south-western Ukraine, Hungary east of the Danube river and West Banat in Serbia.
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in Book IV of his Histories, written in 440 BC; He writes that the tribal union/confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. One of the most important artifacts from around this period was the Helmet of Coțofenești, which was stolen in 2025.
Strabo's account of the lands inhabited by the Getae:
The Dacians spoke a dialect of the Thracian language but were influenced culturally by the neighboring Scythians in the east and by the Celtic invaders of Transylvania in the 4th century.
Due to the fluctuating nature of the Dacian states, especially before the time of Burebista and before the 1st century AD, the Dacians would often be split into different kingdoms. Known rulers of the Dacians include Charnabon in the 5th century BC, Cothelas in the 4th century BC,Atlas of Classical History by R. Talbert, 1989, page 63, "Getae under Cothelas" Rex Histrianorum mentioned in 339 BC, Dual in the 3rd century BC, Moskon in the 3rd century BC,https://revistapontica.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/pontica-3-pag-125-129.pdf Radu Ocheșeanu: Monedele basileului Moskon aflate în colecțiile Muzeului de Arheologie Constanța Dromichaetes in the 3rd century BC,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, Index Dromichaetes King of the Getians Zalmodegicus around 200 BC,McGing B.C.: The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of PontusKurt W. Treptow and Ioan Bolovan in “A history of Romania – East European Monographs”, 1996, , page 17 "..Two inscriptions discovered at Histria indicate that Geto-Dacian rulers (Zalmodegikos and later Rhemaxos) continued to exercise control over that city-state around 200 BC ...." Rhemaxos also around 200 BC,The Hellenistic Age from the Battle of Ipsos to the Death of Kleopatra VII by Stanley M. Burstein, 1985, Index Rhemaxos Getic or Scythian rulerKurt W. Treptow and Ioan Bolovan in “A history of Romania – East European Monographs”, 1996, , page 17 "Two inscriptions discovered at Histria indicate that Geto-Dacian rulers (Zalmodegikos and later Rhemaxos) continued to exercise control over that city-state around 200 BC ...." Rubobostes before 168 BC,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, Index Rubobostes Dacian King Zoltes after 168 BC, Oroles in the 2nd century BC,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 53, "Dacian King Oroles" Dicomes in the 1st century BC,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 47, "Dicomes of the Getians" Rholes in the 1st century BC,The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus by Cassius Dio, Ian Scott-Kilvert, and John Carter, 1987, page 85: "... Then he completed their destruction with the help of Roles, the king of a tribe of the Getae. When Roles visited Octavian, he was treated as a friend ..." Dapyx in the 1st century BC,Cassius Dio. Roman History, Book LI. "While he was thus engaged, Roles, who had become embroiled with Dapyx, himself also king of a tribe of the Getae, sent for him. Crassus went to his aid, and by hurling the horse of his opponents back upon their infantry he so thoroughly terrified the latter also that what followed was no longer a battle but a great slaughter of fleeing men of both arms. Next he cut off Dapyx, who had taken refuge in a fort, and besieged him. In the course of the siege someone hailed him from the walls in Greek, obtained a conference with him, and arranged to betray the place. The barbarians, thus captured, turned upon one another, and Dapyx was killed along with many others. His brother, however, Crassus took alive, and not only did him no harm but actually released him." Zyraxes in the 1st century BC,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 146, "Zyraxes who ruled in Dobruja" Burebista between 82 and 44 BC,Studies in Ancient Greek and Roman Society by Robin Osborne, 2004, page 128: "... of its citizens, named Akornion, went on an embassy to Burebista, the first and greatest of the kings in Thrace..." Deceneus between 44 BC and around 27 BC,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, Index (Decaeneus/Dekaineus/Dicineus) Dacian High priest" Thiamarkos between 1st century BC and 1st century AD, Cotiso between c. 40 BC and c.9 BC,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 48, "The Dacian king Cotiso" Comosicus between 9 BC and 30 AD,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 72, "At least two of his successors Comosicus and Scorillo/Corilus/Scoriscus became high priests and eventually Dacian kings" Scorilo between c. 30 AD and 70 AD Coson in the 1st century AD,Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 47, "Kings Coson (who minted his own coins) and Duras" Duras between c. 69 AD to 87 AD, and Decebalus between 87 AD to 106 AD.De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 2007-11-08. "In the year 88, the Romans resumed the offensive. The Roman troops were now led by the general Tettius Iulianus. The battle took place again at Tapae but this time the Romans defeated the Dacians. For fear of falling into a trap, Iulianus abandoned his plans of conquering Sarmizegetuza and, at the same time, Decebalus asked for peace. At first, Domitian refused this request, but after he was defeated in a war in Pannonia against the Marcomanni (a Germanic tribe), the emperor was obliged to accept the peace." Dacia became a province of the Roman Empire in 106 AD, conquered by Emperor Trajan. However the Free Dacians outside of the Roman Empire remain independent under Pieporus, king of Dacian Costoboci in the 2nd century AD,Wilhelm Tomachek in “Les restes de la langue dace” published in “Le Muséon By Société des lettres et des sciences, Louvain, Belgium, page 407 "Pieporus, prince des daces Costoboces..."Gudmund Schütte in Ptolemy's maps of northern Europe, H. Hagerup, 1917 page 82 "historical king Pieporus. The same author Schütte in “Our forefathers” published by University Press, 1929 page 74 "The North Dacian tribes of the Koistobokoi and Karpoi unlike the rest of Dacia escaped the Roman conquest of AD 105..." and possibly Tarbus in the 2nd century AD.Wilhelm Tomachek (1883): “Les restes de la langue dace” published in “Le Muséon By Société des lettres et des sciences, Louvain, Belgium, page 409Batty, Roger (2007): Rome and the Nomads: the Pontic-Danubian realm in antiquity, Oxford University Press, , , page 366
The Dacia of King Burebista (82–44 BC) stretched from the Black Sea to the source of the river Tisa and from the Balkan Mountains to Bohemia. During that period, the Geto-Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia and Olbia) and from present-day Slovakia's mountains to the Balkan mountains. In 53 BC, Julius Caesar stated that the lands of the Dacians started on the eastern edge of the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest).